Spotlight 04/23: The Externalization of EU Borders: The Case of Agadez

    by Sarah Horváth and Regine Schwab | To the Publication

    1 The opinions expressed in the text are solely those of the authors.

    2 Zaragoza-Cristiani, J. (2015). Analysing the Causes of the Refugee Crisis and the Key Role of Turkey: Why Now and Why So Many? EUI Working Papers. Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies.

    3 Gätjen, A. & Fritz, P (2021). Where are Europe's borders? The EU border externalisation policies discussed, Polis180. Retrieved from polis180.org/polisblog/2021/06/03/where-are-europes-borders-the-eu-border-externalisation-policies-discussed/.

    4 Moretti, S. (2020) Transit Migration in Niger: Stemming the Flows of Migrants, but at What Cost? Migration and Society, 1(aop), 1-9.

    5 Molenaar, F. (2017) Irregular migration and human smuggling networks in Niger. CRU Report, Clingendael Institut, The Hague.

    6 Raineri, L. & Rossi, A. (2017) The security-migration-development Nexus in the Sahel: A reality check. Istituto Affari Internazionali.

    7 Wirtz, M. (2019) The Plight of Refugees in Agadez in Niger: From Crossroad to Dead End. Mobile Africa. Human Trafficking and the Digital Divide, 239.

    8 Lex - 52015DC0285 - en - EUR-Lex, EUR-Lex. (2015). Retrieved from eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/.

    9 Lex - 52015DC0285 - en - EUR-Lex, EUR-Lex. (2015).

    10 All data from UNHCR’s Operational Portal: Refugee Situations—Mediterranean Situation at http://data2.unhcr.org/en/situations/mediterranean. 

    11 Ibid.

    12 Dauchy, A & translated by Waine, O. (July 2022) Arrests of People Smugglers in Niger: A Criminalization of Mutual-Aid Practices in Migration Situations, Metropolitics. Retrieved from https://metropolitics.org/Arrests-of-People-Smugglers-in-Niger-A-Criminalization-of-Mutual-Aid-Practices.html. 

    13 Niger: Loi No. 2015-36 du 26 mai 2015 relative au Trafic Illicite de Migrants [Niger], (26 May 2015), Retrieved from https://www.refworld.org/docid/60a505e24.html. 

    14 Hoffmann, A., Meester, J., & Nabara, H. (2017) Migration and markets in Agadez. Economic alternatives to the migration industry, 2017-10.

    15 Weihe, M., Müller-Funk, L., & Abdou, M (2021). How EU Pressure Hampers Circular Migration between Niger and Libya, GIGA-Hamburg. Retrieved from www.giga-hamburg.de/en/publications/giga-focus/how-eu-pressure-hampers-circular-migration-between-niger-and-libya.

    16 Abebe, T. (2019) Securitization of Migration in Africa: The Case of Agadez in Niger.

    17 Samuel Hall (2016) Selling Sand in the Desert, The Economic Impact of Migration in Agadez, a study commissioned by IOM Niger.

    18 Moretti (2020).

    19 Ibid.

    20 Ibid.

    21 Niger: Loi No. 2015-36 du 26 mai 2015 relative au Trafic Illicite de Migrants [Niger], (26 May 2015), Retrieved from https://www.refworld.org/docid/60a505e24.html.

    22 Baldwin-Edwards & Lutterbeck (2019).

    23 Raineri & Rossi (2017).

    24 Ibid.

    25 Brachet, J. (2018) Manufacturing Smugglers: From Irregular to Clandestine Mobility in the Sahara. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 676(1), 16–35.

    26 Malm, S. (2016) Now Niger Holds the EU to Ransom over Migrants. Daily Mail, 3 May. Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3571542/Niger-tells-Europe-needs-1-bln-euros-fight-illegal-migration.html/.   

    27 Idrissa, R. (2021). Mapping the Sahel. New Left Review (132): 21.

    28 Molenaar (2017).

    29 Ibid.

    30 Ibid.

    31 Malm, S. (2016).

    32 Molenaar (2017).

    33 Molenaar, F. (2018). Migration policies and development: The dilemma of Agadez, The centre for Africa-Europe relations. Retrieved from https://ecdpm.org/work/focus-on-migration-moving-backward-moving-forward-volume-7-issue-1-winter-2018/migration-policies-and-development-the-dilemma-of-agadez. 

    34 Molenaar (2017).

    35 Hoffmann, Meester, & Nabara (2017).

    36 Molenaar (2017).

    37 Hoffmann, Meester & Nabara (2017).

    38 Ibid.

    39 Diallo (2016) as cited in Moretti (2020).

    40 Molenaar (2017).

    41 Ibid.

    42 Hoffmann, Meester, & Nabara (2017).

    43 Johnson, S. (July 2017) Fresh evidence of violence at Libyan detention centres as boats turned back. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/jul/15/fresh-evidence-of-violence-at-libyan-detention-centres-as-boats-turned-back. 

    44 Molenaar (2017).

    45 Jegen, L. & Zanker, F. (2019) European Dominance of Migration Policy in Niger: On a Fait Les Filles Avant La Mère. MEDAM Policy Brief, (2019/3).

    46 Niger - Employment In Agriculture, Trading Economics. Retrieved from: https://tradingeconomics.com/niger/employment-in-agriculture-percent-of-total-employment-wb-data.html. 

    47 Molenaar (2017).

    48 Jegen & Zanker (2019).

    49 Ibid.

    50 Pelz, D. (January 2020) Fears of new violence in Niger's Agadez after refugee camp blaze, Deutsche Welle Akademie. Retrieved from https://www.dw.com/en/fears-of-new-violence-in-nigers-agadez-after-refugee-camp-blaze/a-51921488. 

    51 Alarmphone Sahara (September 2022) Niger: Senegalese migrants take to the streets to march from Agadez to Niamey and demand their return to Senegal Retrieved from: https://alarmephonesahara.info/en/blog/posts/niger-senegalese-migrants-take-to-the-streets-to-march-from-agadez-to-niamey-and-demand-their-return-to-senegal. 

    52 Wirtz (2019).